A Teacher’s Education And how it Affects Student Learning

In 2005, the U.S. will have over 54 million children in schools and teachers will total 3.5 million.   To keep up with this number, 200,000 teachers will need to be recruited annually.The inability to produce this many is causing states to issue emergency certification programs lasting only 4-8 weeks and then throwing these teachers into schools, many of them inner-city.   But even with the No Child Left Behind policies in place, America is still severely lacking in achievement levels and grades then other countries.   This is because the level of education a teacher has influences how well a student achieves and teachers are not getting the proper training or education needed.There are statistics coming out that show that a student’s achievement really relies on what a teacher’s educational level is.   Research shows that the quality of teaching is actually the largest school related factor associated with achievement.   A study in Tennessee and Dallas showed that a good teacher could raise a child’s grade by a whole level over the course of a year.The good grades were found to be cumulative, showing kids who had a good teacher for three straight years rose from the 59th percentile in fourth grade to the 76th percentile in the sixth grade.   But kids that had teachers, who were classified not as effective as the first group, went from the 60th percentile in fourth grade to the 42nd percentile by the time they reached sixth grade.   (Robert Rothman, 2004.)As America grows, it’s no surprise that more kids are coming into the school systems.   The problem is that universities can’t produce enough teachers to keep up.   That is a reason why 41 states have developed Alternative programs aimed at getting people a teacher’s certificate in four to eight weeks.These programs train a person in basic training for the classroom, basic training on how to make lesson plans and they reduce the requirements for state licenses, so that they can be hired for an emergency.   The American Board for Certification of Teacher Excellence’s â€Å"Passport to Teaching Certification† reduce the time a person spends studying to teach.   It also eliminates practice teaching in a classroom.   Since teaching requires practice and mastery of the subject, without practice teaching, the person just gets rushed through to the real classroom.Teach for America gives students a summer crash course in teaching and then gives them a class, usually inner city, the following fall.   They have an astronomical 75% turnover rate though!   Most emergency hiring happens in inner-city schools, which means that these very basically trained teachers are thrown in the most disadvantaged schools.   (Reg Weaver, 2004.)A national sample of teachers showed that if they had lower academic qualifications, they were less likely to stay teaching.   80,000 teachers have come out of these alternative programs, but only 40% have stayed teaching past year three.   Statistics are supporting that the â€Å"strongest negative predictor of a state’s student achievement are the proportion of new teachers who are uncertified and the proportion who hold less then a minor in the field they teach.†Ã‚   (quote1.)At the annual American Educational Research Association meeting in 2004, they brought to light that Kindergarten kids are scoring 1.26 test score points lower with teachers who were issued an emergency license them by a fully-certified teacher.   The American Institute for Research also found that 8th graders scored 9% higher in math if they had teachers who specialized in math and had a certificate in math.

European Year of Education through Sport 2004 Essay

Research, analyse and critically examine the (European Union’s) European Year of Education through Sport 2004, illustrating your answer with examples from European countries. Sport has been a major arena for the display of popular European values ever since the very first recorded Ancient Olympics were held at Olympia in 776 B.C. The Olympics of Ancient Greece and subsequently the modern Olympics gave rise to the ideology of Olympism, a way of life that embodies through sport these qualities and values. In the years that have passed, the changing face of sport has modelled and re-modelled itself in line with contemporary trends and technological advancements, but the core beliefs have remained the same. Whilst even then in its infancy, sport had to deal with bribery and corruption, with politics and commercialism; the same evils that have plagued the sporting world at the highest level ever since; sport has survived, and the ethos of sport and Olympism continue to be heralded as the archetype of health, vitality and virtue. In September 2003 a ‘Eurobarometer’ survey was carried out, in order to establish the general public feelings towards education through sport. The results it returned were unswerving in their support. Almost two-thirds of the survey sample cited team spirit as the most important sporting value, whilst 70% were in favour of a harder crackdown on doping in sport. Amongst other revelations of a similar trend it is notable that the 2 highest responses when asked if the EU should do more to promote education through sport were those of Greece (90% said yes) and Portugal (85%). These of course will be the 2 main focal points for sporting excellence in 2004; hosting the Olympic Games and the European Football Championships respectively. It is clear that the officials of the European Union share the belief that the prominent values and health benefits that can be garnered from education through sport are desirable. Following the conclusion of the Eurobarometer survey and further research, a budget totalling à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½11.5 million was made available specifically for the initiative they dubbed ‘The European Year of Education through Sport’ (EYES). The allocation of the budget is divided, in simple terms, as described on the InfoBase Europe website, (www.ibeurope.com): ‘A budget of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½11.5 million will be available to support meetings, campaigns and events designed to further the aims of the Year throughout the European Union.’ Whilst à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½11.5 million may appear at first glance to be a substantial amount, further examination reveals otherwise. To be simplistic in analysis, let us say that the funds were equally divided amongst the European Union’s 15 member states; this would leave à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½766,667 (or à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½522,575 [source: www.xe.com]) per nation to distribute internally to cover the entire year. This would work out at around à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½14,744 or à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½10,050 per week for the whole country, far less than the wage of some professional athletes. The UK branch of EYES has 3 ‘key objectives’: 1. Promote EYES in the UK and on a pan-European basis. 2. Give as many people as possible access to the work being undertaken during the EYES 2004 programme. 3. Engage more young people in physical activity and sport, enhancing other developments in the field in the UK. These objectives run parallel with those of the EU as a whole (see annexe 1). In terms of promotion, the initiative is being spearheaded by an ‘All-Star team’ of popular former and current stars of European sport; the most familiar of these perhaps being Jurgen Klinsmann, Clarence Seedorf, Amelie Mauresmo and Sir Steven Redgrave. Alongside these 5 are another 37 individuals (as well as the Latvian National Football Team), ranging from internationally famed to somewhat obscure, all of whom are committed to â€Å"actively supporting the campaign†. (http://www.eyes-2004.info/254.0.html) There seems to be a solid base from which to build a real Europe-wide success. In addition to the All-Star Team, EYES can boast partners from all over Europe, from a variety of different sports as well as many Governmental ministries and Educational Associations, 4 TV Channels and, perhaps most significantly, Sponsorship from VISA and the German travel company Vietentours. There will certainly be a significant amount of publicity surrounding EYES as the year goes on. The logo, accompanied by its slogan (â€Å"move your body, stretch your mind†) will be on display at nearly 200 events during 2004, including the Olympic Games, the Paralympic Games and Euro 2004. It appears that from a promotional point of view, as well as the infrastructure, the EU has got it right. There will be plenty of opportunities for people to find out about and participate in EYES. But then what? Even if we were to blanket the entire continent with an awareness of EYES; even if every school in every nation participated; what next? 2005 will not be the ‘European Year of Education through Sport, II’. Surely the priority must be to lay down the foundations for future and continuing education through sport throughout the continent? Any ‘continuing legacy’ or suchlike goes unmentioned in the aims and objectives sections of EYES on both the official website and InfoBase. The focus seems to be on getting as many people interested in sport as possible, then assuming their enthusiasm will remain at a constant level without further promotion. It implies a level of naivety in terms of the EU’s awareness of the seemingly obvious expendable novelty value that can be associated with most short-term governmental and pan-European events of this ilk. There is no function in place to prevent the project from slipping into history without having made any real long-term difference to the education of the public through continuing participation in sport. The official UK website (www.eyes2004.org) contains information for schools on how to get involved, news updates on EYES projects and media releases, and online challenges for schools to take part in by inputting results from different activities into a database to create ‘live, ‘on-line’ competition between schools’ (http://www.eyes2004challenges.org/splash.htm) This attempts to address the ‘access’ aim of the website; whether or not it does this remains to be seen. In my personal experience, the efforts of the British arm of the project so far appear to have been poor, especially on the promotional side. Public awareness seems to be non-existent; I have mentioned EYES to many people, young and old, at every level of the education system; from my neighbours’ primary school children to my 16 year old brother, to my Mother, (a project manager at the local 6th form college). Neither any of them, nor any of the others I spoke to were previously aware of the EYES. Whilst I am aware that this casual sampling cannot be considered in any way to be indicative of the entire British population, they don’t exactly imply a resounding success of the project in my local area. However, it is important to note that in this, as in all cases, only 4 months of the year have passed and there is still time for awareness to be created. There are 5 projects currently running here in the UK: The use of sport and education for the social inclusion of asylum seekers and refugees. (Loughborough University) Basic Skills and Education through Sport (Hull City Council) Clean Start programme (UK Sport) Learning Through Football: Euro 2004 (Football Association) Leeds Education Activity Partnership (Leeds City Council) http://www.eyes2004.org/projectnews.htm The first project on the list highlights the poor promotional aspect perfectly. Whilst it is being run here at Loughborough University; the level of awareness of the project itself and of EYES as a whole has been minimal. Continental Europe, however, may prove to be a different story. Whilst the British Physical Education system is comparatively relaxed in its decentralisation, possibly leading to the aforementioned ineffectiveness in the dissemination of the EYES message, the French political infrastructure, for example, may prove a far more effective and efficient vehicle for the promotion of EYES due to its highly centralised nature. Another aspect is to promote the value of voluntary work for the young and the benefits it can provide for informal education. An example of this is in Portugal where by The Portuguese Youth Institute supported by the European Voluntary Service are giving children under the age of 16 the opportunity to help out in European Football Championships 2004 as ball boys and holding flags and banners before games. The aim of the scheme is to bring young people from different communities and racial backgrounds together through voluntary participation in sport. It may also be argued that, whilst 2004 may have initially appeared to be the ideal year for EYES, with 2 internationally prestigious sporting events being hosted in Europe; the reality may be somewhat different in that EYES could well be overshadowed to the point of insignificance by both Euro 2004 and the Athens Olympics. To make a conclusive statement about the success of EYES at this early stage in the year would I feel be somewhat naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve. It can be said however, that the right building blocks have been put into place in order to make it a success. The infrastructure and the organisational aspect is far-reaching enough to be of use to the whole continent; whilst remaining centralised enough in key areas to focus on the same goals. The promotional side is again set up right, with representatives from many sports and many countries being involved from the high-profile to the less glamorous. Whilst the signs of implementation of EYES in schools are encouraging; LEAPS (Learning and education through activity and participation in sports) in Dublin; Basic skills and Education through Sport (Hull); Together in Sport for growing up (Italy); the true results of EYES’ success in schools may take some time due to the enormous amount of feedback required to get a realistic overview of all events and projects. The apparent lack of continuation in terms of the aims and objectives of the initiative can be put down to one of two things. One is that the EU are banking on the continuing success of a one-off push into sport, ignoring the possibility of a speedy return to the low participation rates of recent years. The more likely explanation is that, whilst the EU realise that the effects of EYES may wear off as the future years go by, it will be more effective, given the comparatively small budget available, to concentrate on getting the message out there to as many people as possible this year than to try to implement long-running programmes with less public awareness. Ultimately the deciding factor on the success or failure of EYES, as with most things, will be the budget. Even if, as suggested, the money is directed in the correct manner with minimal amounts of wastage, it is still a relatively insignificant sum on an international scale. I would predict that for there to be any lasting impression left by EYES on the future education through sport in this continent, the amount of funding behind the initiative would have to be substantially larger. Bibliography http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/Olympics/olympicorigins.shtml (Accessed 15/03/04) http://www.ecdel.org.au/whatsnew/2003/sports.htm (Accessed 15/03/04) http://www.ibeurope.com/Database/Factsheets/F050eyes.htm (Accessed 15/03/04) http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/sport/key_files/annee_eur/a_2004_en.html (Accessed 15/03/04) http://www.xe.com/ucc/ (Accessed 15/03/04) http://www.eyes2004.org/splash.htm (Accessed 17/03/04) http://www.eyes2004.org/projectnews.htm (Accessed 18/03/04) http://www.eyes-2004.info/254.0.html (Accessed 18/03/04) http://www.eyes-2004.info/4138.0.html (Accessed 18/03/04) Annexe 1 The Aims of EYES (http://www.ibeurope.com/Database/Factsheets/F050eyes.htm) The aims of the European Year are: (a) to make educational institutions and sports organisations aware of the need for cooperation in order to develop education through sport and its European dimension, given the very great interest that young people take in all kinds of sport; (b) to take advantage of the values conveyed through sport to develop knowledge and skills whereby young people in particular can develop their physical prowess and readiness for personal effort and also social abilities such as teamwork, solidarity, tolerance and fair play in a multicultural framework; (c) to promote awareness of the positive contribution that voluntary activities make to non-formal education, especially of young people; (d) to promote the educational value of pupil mobility and exchanges particularly in a multicultural environment through the organisation of sporting and cultural contacts as part of school activity; (e) to encourage the exchange of good practice concerning the role sport can play in education systems to promote the social inclusion of disadvantaged groups; (f) to create a better balance between intellectual and physical activity in school life by encouraging sport in school activities; (g) to consider the problems relating to the education of young sportsmen and sportswomen taking part in competitive sports.

Effective People, Communication and Information Essay

There are many different methods of communication. These can be divided into two different categories: Electronic (non-written), and Non-Electronic (written). Read more:  Reasons for communication  essay Methods of communication that would come under Written Communication would be things like: * Letter * Memos * Reports * Fax * Invoices * Flow charts * Publicity materials * SMS (Text Message) Methods of communications that would come under Electronic Communication would be things along the lines of: * Telephone * Video conferencing * Meetings Both Written Communication and Electronic Communication have their advantages. These advantages differ depending on the audience which is being addressed. The recipient is very important when it comes to the type of communication that is being used. Within The Organisation Within the organisation the methods of communication that I would use would be things like: * Memos – To help the staff members who are higher up on the food chain remember certain tasks that have set upon them. * Reports – To view any progress or falls being happening within the organisation. Reports are a good way to do this as they are detailed. * Meetings – In an organisation, it is inevitable that there will be meetings held. These are usually used to discuss improvement, the current status of the organisation, and to get staff to contribute their ideas. Customers These are the methods of communication that I would use to communicate with the customers: * Publicity Materials – To tell the truth, this is an obvious one really. The way to get customers is through publicity. If your organisation is a well known one, it is more likely to prosper. * Advertisements – In my opinion, advertisements should be used by all major and even small organisations. These should outline things like services provided and special offers to attract more customers. Suppliers Here are some of the methods of communications I would use to communicate with suppliers of goods etc.: * Letters – These are a great way of communicating and people have been using them for centuries. I would use letters to communicate with suppliers because it is not a long time consuming method of communicating. You just write what you need to say, put it in an envelope, post it, and the recipient gets it the next day. * Telephone – This is one of the simplest, most direct ways of communicating with people today. Talking with suppliers on the telephone would mean that all of the business involving matters like deliveries, times, amounts, and other things can all be sorted out in a matter of minutes.

Man Power Staffing Agency and Their Knowledge Sharing Practices Research Paper

Man Power Staffing Agency and Their Knowledge Sharing Practices - Research Paper Example The commitment towards producing a positive impact on the society and individuals accounts for an extension of the company’s values. The company shares its expertise and knowledge for the development of sustainable workforce practices. The company’s catering to the manpower requirements in organizations is one of the best in the industry. It has attained great efficiencies in filling business positions or even filling large workforces in the industries. This is done not only through temporary staffing, but also by permanent placements. It solves the staffing problems in organizations through its customized recruitment plans. Besides presenting its staffing solutions, Manpower also contributes tremendous efforts towards training and developmental activities. It thrives on quality and its training programs account for its main component of its knowledge sharing practices. Apart from its training and developmental activities Manpower also devises other strategic human reso urce management practices for firms. Its strategy tips are provided through strategic alliances and contacts and other industry professionals. The project seeks to make an analysis of the knowledge sharing practices that it can implement. Based on the practices, the project would highlight on how the strategies would be effective in aligning with the organizational goals and objectives. Knowledge Sharing practices in Manpower Staffing Agency Among the most prominent knowledge sharing services that the company could implement is to provide companies with innovative and creative workforce solutions that would help them increase productivity, enhance efficiencies and provide a boost to their bottom lines. It provides special advice to businesses for controlling costs and turnovers. Through the knowledge solutions that it has provided, Manpower would be able to reduce the costs associated with recruiting the wrong candidates in organizations substantially. It can provide expertise to te st the skills and abilities of candidates before they are hired. This would benefit many organizations in terms of realizing time savings, reduction of turnover costs, and improving recruiting efficiencies considerably. It can provide solutions to organizations considering their sizes and workforce capacities and workloads (Manpower-a, â€Å"Control costs†). Not only can it help to influence the present working of companies but can also recommend strategies of how they can function in future given the changing environments and conditions. The other important knowledge sharing practice used by Manpower is the provision of training and developmental activities on different tools and skills. The organization could enhance its specialization through the provision of skill specific courses. Moreover it could diversity on its present training domain to include IT, healthcare, hospitality sector etc. The business skills that it could concentrate on could be communication, project ma nagement or even sales excellence. It could cover the critical knowledge areas in the above domain. This can be done using appropriate reading material, extending learning aids for enhancing distribution of knowledge. It is

Assignment #5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

On Miracles by David Hume - Essay Example Hence Hume dismisses outright any kind of revelatory recounting of miracles. Take say, the example of the resurrection of Christ three days after his death. Though it is an important miracle in Christian theology, it fails the rigorous standards of empiricism that Hume mandates. We only have references to the event in the scriptures, the writing of which happened much later than the event – sometimes centuries later. On top of this, those who witnessed Christ’s resurrection were invariably the faithful, who wished that it were so. A major thrust of Hume’s thesis is that the burden of proof lies heavily upon those claiming miracles. Hume defines a miracle as that event which has defined laws of nature. As a consequence witnesses of miracles are required to bring high credibility to their evidence. But this is easier said than done, as there are inherent mitigating factors. Firstly, since an overwhelming majority of people are religiously inclined and have accepted miracles as acts of God, their psyche would lack the requisite skepticism and objectivity in evaluating a claimed miracle. Individuals do not merely perceive events through their senses but through the lens of their cognitive faculties. Our cognitive faculties are trained and cultivated through our education and exposure to various life experiences. Since there is a great deal of variability among humans in this regard, no two individuals would perceive an event in the same way. Hume also articulates the ‘argument from miracles’.

Foundation Business Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Foundation Business Management - Essay Example This paper briefly analyses the management model, structure and culture in three different companies; Microsoft, Apple and Coca Cola and the impact of these management styles on the employees. Microsoft does not need an introduction in the world because of its established monopoly in software industries and computer world. Founded in 1981, controlled by Bill Gates and his team, Microsoft has become one of the all time best companies in the world at present. Microsoft is not following any conventional models of management. In fact they don’t have even a president or CEO. Jung (2003) has mentioned that all the Microsoft operations are controlled by eight chief financial officers. The companys seven business units are: Client, which includes its Windows operating system; Information Worker, including Office business software applications; Server Platforms, for server software; Home and Entertainment, including Xbox video-game consoles and the Xbox Live online gaming service; MSN, its Internet service; Business Solutions, including software for small and medium sized businesses; and CE/Mobility, including software for wireless phones and mobile devices (Jung). Microsoft has divided its entire business portfolios into seven different categories and named a head for each category. The above strategy helped them to manage each areas of their business more effectively because of the different heads at the top of different units instead of a single head at the top of the organization. The unit heads need to concentrate only on their units and hence their workloads are comparatively less when we compare other organizations with a single CEO at the top. Employee-employer relations in Microsoft not seem to be in a good shape at present because of the recession problems. Salary reduction, termination of jobs, temporary layoffs etc are common nowadays in Microsoft because of the

Optimal Educational Environment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Optimal Educational Environment - Assignment Example Under these constitutional rights, any student facing expulsion or removal from school would be entitled to a written notice. Where a student is facing long-term suspension, they would have right of hearing in which student may present their defense based on evidences. Although ABC School does not follow corporal punishment however any observation of such punishment violates Eighth Amendment protection against cruel and unusual punishment. For general search purposes, The Fourth Amendment right shall be followed by the administration on reporting of teacher. b) Optimal Learning Environment in Classroom 1. Guidelines for Teachers & Students The primary responsibility of acting as a role model for students in terms of civilized and disciplined conduct rests on teachers. Therefore, teachers of ABC School are expected to refrain from any action that can be categorized as malicious and uncivilized. These actions can further be divided under the categories of harassment including physical and mental abuse, intimidation, bullying, expression of hatred and sexual misconduct. Upon discovery of such actions by teachers, the matter will be dealt in accordance with policies of Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI, 2013). It is important to note that there are some researches that have criticized the regime of zero tolerance towards offenses committed by students (American Psychological Association, 2008). Therefore, punishments designed in this policy are provided to support positive enforcement and prevention from actions that can be considered as disciplinary breach. 2. Types of Violence ABC School’s administration strictly refrains from corporal punishment or any kind of physical abuse. In addition to that, any verbal instructions and reprimand is performed in isolation and not in front of other students. The purpose of doing so is to refrain from causing students to lose interest in attending school and causing damage to their self-esteem. Usual offenses may be divided into physical, sexual and emotional ones. Where physical violence can be dealt directly by teacher, any sexual violence will be addressed by the Office of Principal only. Where corporal punishment is not used in ABC School, in order to address issues of violence and breach of code of conduct by students, teachers may use demerits policy as a punishment. The actions that can be categorized as offensive are: a) Failure to follow teacher’s clear instructions’ b) Failure to follow guidelines provided in school orientation i.e. food and drinks in classroom, attire that can be labeled as sexually and racially offensive, actions that can cause damage to school property and endangers other students’ wellbeing including theft, c) Falsification of statement or cheating in exams d) Insubordination 3. Addressing Disciplinary Violations Depending on the severity of act, different demerits can be assigned by teachers including suspension of varying dur ations, loss of driving privileges, notifications/ warning letters issued and required to be signed by parents, community service or extra classes. In order to ensure that students are guided to operate in a disciplinary manner, a holistic approach will be followed which also includes involvement of parents (Osher, Bear, Sprague & Doyle, 2010).  

An outline marketing plan for the next year for Atlantic Quench 091 Essay

An outline marketing plan for the next year for Atlantic Quench 091 - Essay Example Atlantic Quench operations are based on the suggestive budget that indicates the major expenses that will be incurred as well as the expected 2015 profits. Based on the global stiff competition in the soft drink industry where Coca-Cola Company is a leader, various organizations have been established with an aim of getting a share of the local and global market. Additionally, as more quality brands have been established in the market, the demand for juice drinks as well as non-juice drinks has increased. It is worth to note that based on the health problems that sugary juices have been associated with, more consumers have diverted their loyalty towards juices that have less sugar (Bird, 2007). In their efforts to capture the attention of such consumers, mostly at the age of 50 to 65, beverage firms have embarked on production of non-juice and light juice drinks to meet their needs. Juice drinks industry is faced with a number of challenges that include volatile market, changes in climate conditions as well as changes in the market trends. As a result, it is not possible to predict the harvest that the firm will incur. It is expected that between the periods of 2012 to 2018, the global soft drink market value shall increase from 530.5 billion to 624.4 billion. Additionally, the market is anticipated to expand at a CAGR of about 4.7% from 2013 to 2018. This expansion is expected to drive the market upwards to a value of 785,269.8 million by the end of 2018 (Marder, E.2007). Atlantic Quench Cranberries Incorporation (AQC) is an agricultural co-operative based in the US. The company mission is to provide quality cranberry products that are produced by healthy Atlantic Canadian cranberries. The company major marketing strategy is through its website where it provides contact and fax that customers can use to contact the marketing team. The company

MRIs and Other Issues in Medicine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

MRIs and Other Issues in Medicine - Essay Example An X-Ray is also used to image internal structures of the body, but opposed to an MRI, an X-Ray is a type of high-energy radiation. X-Rays are made of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between ultraviolet and gamma rays, and are most often used in low doses for making images of internal body structures and in higher doses for treating cancer. A CT Scan (CAT Scan) is again, another form of viewing the internal structures of a person's body. CT Scans are in fact a computerized series of X-Rays, which can reveal tumors and small strokes in the brain. A computer is used to generate a three dimensional image, which are then analyzed and displayed for diagnostic purposes. An MRI is most often used for studying nerves, muscles, ligaments, bones, and other tissues in the body. Problems such as a disc herniation in the spine or masses or tumors within soft tissues are seen well on an MRI image. MRIs are most helpful and most commonly used by orthopedic surgeons; an MRI is particularly helpful at diagnosing many common orthopedic problems. Therefore the most probable explanation as to why and MRI would be ordered is if orthopedic problems are perceived to exist in a patient. What Would it be an Appropriate Situation for an MRI not to be Done There are several proper explanations for why an MRI would not be ordered for a patient. Firstly, an MRI is not the most accurate test. Although an MRI is useful in the diagnosis of many conditions, it is not 100% accurate in all cases, which means sometimes the problem will not show up in the MRI. Another primary reason as to why an MRI might not be ordered is because an MRI is usually "not the first step." (Cluett, 2006). In other words, there are other steps which should be taken in an attempt to figure out the problem, rather than immediately ordering an MRI. Lastly but certainly no less importantly, is the fact that an MRI is only a diagnostic test, and not a treatment. "An MRI gives some people peace of mind, but will do nothing to change the symptoms of your condition." (Cluett, 2006). Are There any Limitations on an MRI Although MRIs have major technological advantages when compared to other imaging modalities, there are also certain limitations which are present. Disadvantages are there, such as the fact that because of the small bore of the magnet, some patients experience claustrophobia and often have difficulty cooperating in the study. As well, some obese patients cannot be studied by an MRI. Patient throughput is also slower than comparative imaging

Ge Imagination Breakthrough Essay Example for Free

Ge Imagination Breakthrough Essay Can he hope to change a company whose growth was driven by acquisitions and productivity improvement into an organic growth company dependent on innovation, entrepreneurship and risk taking particularly in such a large complex performance driven corporation? Answer: 2a: Yes, Immelt is relying on ‘technological leadership, commercial excellence and global expansion’ to provide â€Å"unstoppable† opportunities and expand GE’s business base. He wanted to use GE’s size and diversity as sources of strength and to drive growth by investing in places and in ways that others could not easily follow. As a counter effect of 1st Jan 2005 deadline for emission regulations it was predicted that there would be a spike in demand for old products, leaving little market for EVO in 2005. These old models were in ready inventory and with much better discounts. 3c: Continual redefinition of the global EVO product and the failure to make hybrid commercially viable * Initially GE decided to develop EVO country specific during IB meeting but it was not viable because of low requirements. * Recognizing the international constraints the EVO was also developed as a product concept ‘Global Modular Locomotive’. Design developed around set of standard components that could be building to different requirements. * GML also helped GE in reducing the response time in international tender processing, reducing the amount spent in non recurring engineering, and reducing the time between order amp; the sale. * GE was also adaptable to specific international requirements such as Kazakhstan’s condition to transfer the assembly operations to their country. This was a part of GE’s international strategy â€Å"In country, for country†.

Shareholder Vs Stakeholder Theory Management Essay

Shareholder Vs Stakeholder Theory Management Essay His views reflect Adam Smiths view that firms operate solely for the purpose of making a profit which contributes to the overall well being of society. Any business activity is justified as long as it increases the value of the firm to its shareholder (Cochran, 1994). Friedman (2005) acknowledges one reason for the existence of firms and that is to make a profit for its shareholders. According to Friedman, firms do not exists to change the world or to do good. He pushes the Shareholder Theory to the extent that he declares as theft or violation of management responsibility any form of donation by the firm, be it in time, in kind, or in monetary measures, by the managers from the investors o the firm (Ruf et al, 1998). Shareholder theory has been widely misinterpreted and quoted in its extreme sense. Carroll (1998) qualifies that although Friedman does insist that the only responsibility of the firm is to record profits for its shareholders, he goes on to state that the firm must operate within acceptable legal and societal parameters. The Shareholder perspective of a firm has been widely challenged over the past years. Authors such as Low and Cowton (2004) and Agatiello (2008) argue that the sole mission of firms to be profit maximisers is incorrect and inappropriate. Todays modern organisation is so complex that reducing it to such simple terms and motivations oversimplifies the same nature of the commercial organisation. Spence (2001) writes that the Stakeholder Theory has emerged as an alternative for the Shareholder Theory of the firm. According to Freeman (1984), the term stakeholder can be traced back to management literature of 1963 when the term was defined as those groups without whose support the organisation would cease to exist. Stakeholder theory recognises that firms have a much wider base of interested parties other than the shareholders and holds that the firm must honour its duties and responsibilities towards all of the parties. The shareholders are simply one group of the several groups which has a claim on the firm (Heath and Norman, 2004). Deck (1994) gives an interesting interpretation of the Stakeholder Theory. While he recognises that the objective of an organisation is to create wealth and distribute this amongst its investors, he explains how the investors are not only represented by the shareholders, but, in fact can and do take the form of other groups such as employees and the society in general, who invest knowledge and skills in the firm. Indeed Halal (2000) argues that the resources invested by stakeholders are roughly tenfold that invested by the shareholders. Post et al (2002) claim that risk is not only limited to financial exposure but also includes risks to employment, career opportu nity, environmental impact and quality of products and services. If a firm fails, employees lose their jobs and possibly also their retirement plans. In line with this argument, firm benefits should not only be distributed to the financial investors, but profits should be divided amongst all those bearing risk within the organisation. 2.2 The Triple Bottom Line A win-win outcome for organisations and stakeholders is that created by the Triple Bottom Line (Elkington, 1998). This is an attempt to shift business towards a stakeholder-based approach. The idea behind the 3BL paradigm is that a corporations success should be measured not just by the traditional financial bottom line, but also by social/ethical and environmental performance (Norman and MacDonald, 2004). The People, Planet, Profit triangle postulates how profit is to be perceived from three perspectives. A positive triple bottom line reflects an increase in the companys value, including both its profitability and shareholder value and its social, human and environmental capital (Savitz, 2006). Even if the three aspects of sustainability environmental, social and economic already existed, Elkingtons principle played a crucial role in shaping initiatives such as the Global Reporting Initiative and the Dow Jones Sustainability Indexes (Berkovics, 2010). The novelty of the 3BL lies i n the contention of its supporters that the fulfilment of its obligations to communities, employees, customers and suppliers should be measured, calculated, audited and reported, just like financial performance had been for the past hundred years. The major fallacy of the 3BL approach is that whilst authors speak of the benefit of measuring the benefits accruing from three perspectives, no one has suggested how to use the data on social performance to calculate some form of net social bottom line. Adding up the financial pluses and deducting the minuses is much easier than summing up the environmental achievements and shortcomings of a firm (MacDonald and Norman, 2004). 2.3 Defining CSR In his seminal work entitled Social Responsibilities of the Businessman, Bowen (1953) defined CSR as the entrepreneurs obligation to pursue those policies, to make those decisions or to follow the lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of society. It is because of this work that authors such as Carroll (1999) and Windsor (2001) have declared Bowen to be the Father of CSR. In todays world of increased globalisation, environmental awareness, recessionary pressures and high insecurity, there are increasing pressures on entrepreneurs and organisations to deliver increased societal value (Jenkins, 2006). Weber (2008) posits that although the concept of CSR is widely discussed, a universally accepted definition still needs to emerge (Turker, 2009). Further Van Marrewijk (2003) claims that a one solutions fits all explanation of CSR is virtually impossible as the concept takes on a different meaning for each organisation, depending on the levels of awareness and ambition of the firm itself. In the 1970s authors of the subject began to indicate that the emphasis on responsibility implied accountability. That, according to Carroll (1979) was too narrow and static an interpretation in order to fully picture the social efforts of the firms. As a result of this criticism two new concepts emerged: Corporate Social Responsiveness (CSR2) and Corporate Social Performance (CSP). CSR2 links CSR with strategic management and stresses the proactive approach required from companies. CSP offered a managerial framework to deal with CSR and attempted to measure it. Frederick (1994) refers to CRS2 as a conceptual transition from the philosophical aspect of CSR to the more action-oriented approach. Several authors such as Ackermann and Bauer (1976), Vallentin (2009), Sethi (1979) also support this view. Others like Carroll (1979) however argue that the term responsiveness is not an appropriate replacement for responsibility. He argues that any action which is not the fruit of reflection and responsibility is not exactly a refinement of a concept which merely encourages responsibility. Firms may indeed be responsive and irresponsible! CSP emerged as a multidimensional concept which embraced the interaction of social responsibility, social responsiveness and the policies corporations designed to address such issues (Watrick and Cochran, 1985). CSP therefore focuses attention from corporate motivations to corporate action and implementation. Although the term CSP tends to give a more dynamic and pragmatic interpretation of the concept it has not been left uncriticised. Authors such as Davenport (2000) look at CSP as a theoretical creation of the scholars. The terms CSR, CSR2 and CSP are often used interchangeably and today, much of the literature simply uses the single term CSR to mean both the firms acceptance of responsibilities and the actions and policies it undertakes in the area (Ciliberti et al 2008). The writings of McGuire (1963), Davis (1960), and Sethi (1975) all concur that CSR describes the responsibilities of a firm which extend beyond what is the legal obligations of the firm. In other words, CSR starts where the law ends. Carroll (1979) is also in support of this view and in his work in 1991 presents a Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibilities to include all, economic, legal, ethical and discretionary responsibilities which emanate from the existing operations of organisations. Although Carroll presents his model in the form of a pyramid with the economic concerns of the firm as the base, he tells us that his model does not, in fact portray a continuum and that the four facets of organisational responsibility are not mutually exclusive. Discretionary Responsibilities Be a good corporate citizen Ethical Responsibilities Be ethical Legal Responsibilities Obey the Lay Economic Responsibilities Be profitable Figure 2: The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility Carroll (1991) In 2003 Schwartz and Carroll presented the different facets of CSR in a different format. This time they moved away from the pyramid structure which seems to have implied some form or natural progression from one level to another and presented their model in the form of a Venn diagram. Furthermore they only included three of Carrolls earlier CSR aspects. Schwartz and Carroll (2003) represented the economic, legal and ethical responsibilities but omitted the discretionary category. Indeed it is inappropriate to regard discretionary and philanthropic activities as responsibilities. Purely Ethical Purely Legal Purely Economic Ethical / Legal Legal / Economic Ethical / Economic Legal / Economic / Ethical Figure 3 : The Three-Domain Model of CSR Schwartz and Carroll (2003) 2.4 A Modern Interpretation of CSR In 2001 The European Union presented a Green Paper entitled Promoting a European Framework for Corporate Social Responsibility. In this paper CSR was defined as a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis. Pivato et al (2008) argue that this is one of the most common interpretations of CSR and it is consistent with recent academic literature. Stakeholder theory gained importance in the 1990s and continues to maintain its position as a focused area of study in CSR (Wang, 2008). More recently, in October 2011, the EU Commission published a new policy on CSR wherein it states that for a firm to meet its social responsibility it should have in place a process to integrate social, environmental, ethical and human rights concerns into their business operations and core strategy in close collaboration with their stakeholders . The EU also put forward a new definition of CSR as the responsibility of enterprises for their impacts on society. The EU intends that firms will abide by their responsibility when they respect the applicable legislation and aim for collective agreements between social partners. Another important aspect of the new EU approach to CSR is the fact that the emphasis is not only on the private sector firms only, but the maximisation of the creation of shared value for society is now also expected of public sector firms. This new policy advances an action agenda for the three year period up to 2014 covering eight distinct areas which detail how the EU intends ensuring that firms embrace this CSR concept. This action plan aims to enhance the visibility of CSR and the dissemination of good practices; improve and track levels of trust in business; improve self-and co-regulation processes; enhance market reward for CSR; improve company disclosure on social and environmental information; further integrate CSR into education, training and research; emphasise the importance of national and sub-national CSR policies and better align European and global approaches to CSR. The EU commission reports that small and medium sized firms are the predominant form of enterprise in the European Union (EU Commission, 2012). The EU further claims that if Europe and its enterprises are to reap the full benefit of CSR, then it is imperative that SMEs engage fully in CSR and are recognised for their initiatives. This is very challenging as CSR has traditionally been the domain of the corporate sector, but recognition of the increasing importance of the SME sector has led to an emphasis on their social and environmental impact (Jenkins, 2004) 2.5 CSR and SMEs Micro, small and medium-sized enterprises are the engine of the European economy. They are an essential course of jobs, create entrepreneurial spirit and innovation in the EU and are thus crucial for fostering competitiveness and employment (Verheugen, 2005). In 2003 the EU revised its 1996 definition of an SME and within the 27 member states, today an SME is a firm with fewer than 250 employees and with a turnover of less than à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬50 million or balance sheet totals of less than à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬43 million. Apart from these quantifications, firms must be independent, i.e. separate from an economic group that is stronger than itself. Medium Sized Firms Small Firms Micro Firms Enterprise Category Head Count (Annual Work Unit Turnover Balance Sheet Totals à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬2 million à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬2 million à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬10 million à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬10 million à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 50 million à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬43 million OR OR OR OR Figure: 4 EU Definition of an SME Source: EU Commission (2003) The EU reports that even in 2012 SMEs have kept their position as the backbone of the European economy, with around 20.7 million firms accouting for more than 98% of all enterprises of which 92.2% are firms which employ fewer than 10 people (Wymenga et al 2012). Wymenga (2012) reports that in 2012 SMEs accounted for 67% of total employment, at around 87 million people and 58% of gross value added. The Maltese economy is one of the smallest economies in the EU: this implies that the relevance of SMEs for the domestic economy is indeed crucial. There are a little less than 30,000 firms in Malta, and with the exception of 44 large firms, the rest employ less than 250 workers. In fact, the economy is dominated by micro-sized firms (95.1%). Small and Medium-Sized firms in Malta account for 4.7% of business organisations, employ 41.8% of the labour force and account for 38.3% of the islands value-added. Micro firms employ 34.4% of the labour force in Malta and account for 26.3% of the value added (EU Commission, 2012). Medium Sized Firms Small Firms Micro Firms Enterprise Category Head Count (Annual Work Unit Turnover Balance Sheet Totals à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬2 million à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬2 million à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬10 million à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬10 million à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 50 million à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬43 million OR OR OR ORFox (2005) contends that all organisations impact on society and the environment in a number of ways through their operations. For this reason, CSR is important in large and small firms alike (Moore and Spence, 2006). The importance of SMEs in CSR literature has, however been overlooked (Perrini and Minoja, 2008; Ciliberti et al, 2008, Moore and Spence, 2006 ). A study carried out by Jenkins in 2004 reveals that much of the thinking about CSR in SMEs is based on unfounded assumptions. It is erroneously assumed that large companies are the norm and therefore, as a consequence all CSR approaches have predominantly been designed and are intended for large firms. Further, it has been presumed that small firms are little large firms differentiating themselves from large corporations merely on the basis of size (Jenkins, 2004). It is clear that SMEs are not miniature large companies, and as such the same practices which have been designed for large firms are difficult to fit to small org anisations (Williamson et al, 2006). A study of Swiss multinational companies (MNCs) and SMEs reveals that contrary to what is perceived by much of the literature on the subject, small firms possess several organisational characteristics that could promote the integration of CSR practices as core business functions, while MNCs possess the disposition to enhance communication and reporting on CSR. CSR is therefore not a function of company size, but rather of company characteristics (Spence, 2011 et al). Structure is one of the factors that distinguishes large from small firms. While large firms tend to organise themselves with a bureaucratic structure and formalisation, small firms are characterised by loose informal working relationships (Perez-Sanchez, 2003). The behaviour of small firms is strongly dependent on the characteristics and management style of the owner himself, whilst in large firms this is not so strongly felt (Tilley, 2000). Perrini (2006) argues that small firms are mostly owner-managed and are run on personal relationships. Gond and Igalens (2008) pin the level of CSR commitment by SMEs as directly dependent on the personality and personal convictions of its managing director. Age plays a significant role here, with the younger owner/managers display greater CSR awareness; gender has no impact on CSR deployment (Ede et al, 2000). Some authors are in disagreement as to whether the educational background of the owner/manager has any bearing on the level of CSR activ ity. (Ede et al, 2000; Spence et al, 2000). Spence et al (2007), confirm this claim and go one step further by asserting that it is the directors vision for the future of his business and his understanding and perception of internal resources which determine CSR engagement in SMEs. Bonneveux et al (2012) report that the capacity of a director to locate and integrate new resources is fundamental to the integration of CSR measures and initiatives. The correlation between CSR engagement by SMEs and the perception and motivation of the firms director and how he sees and reacts to CSR issues is thus reinforced. Ownership and management in large firms are more separate and distinct than they are in small firms. In small firms, control remains in the hands of one of the owners, possibly putting him in a position where he can make personal choices with respect to the allocation of resources (Spence and Rutherfoord (2001). Given this particular management characteristic, the choice of CSR engagement in SMEs is mostly determined by the personal attributes of the owner/manager. A study of US SMEs employing between 5 and 500 workers suggests that efforts to influence owners and managers to implement environmental CSR initiatives such as for example waste reduction need great focus on changing individual attitudes (Bennington et al, 2012). Stewart et al (2011) also confirm the link between leadership and the successful uptake of CSR and sustainability in SMEs. According to the shareholder perspective postulated by Friedman (1970) the owner of a small business has the right to follow their own ethical beliefs in the allocation of organisational resources as they own the business and therefore it follows that they are using their own funds to finance any CSR activity. This is not so in large firms where ownership and control are separate and the investor of the funds does not have any say on how the funds he has contributed are being divested. In support of CSR engagement even based on a shareholder perspective of the firm, Stewart et al (2012) report measurable results in terms of business performance which can be directly attributable to the SMEs greater social and environmental engagement. The study highlights the relationship between learning, the development of organisational values that underpin CSR and improved business performance within the SME context. Perrini (2006) contends that SMEs are, at many times stretched by multitasking, troubled by the limited cash available, and controlled by an informal mechanism. On the other hand, large firms are more likely to engage in carefully planned, formal, strategic management (Jenkins, 2004). Jenkins (2004) tells us that most SMEs are more likely to be concerned about the day-to-day survival then by understanding concepts such as CSR. He contends that the term CSR alienates some of the small firms and that the language used needs to be simpler. In this respect, the European Commission has propo9sed the term Responsible Entrepreneurship in lieu of social responsibility of SMEs. Jenkins research however reveals that small firms regards CSR as an all embracing concept involving three pillars: sustainability; awareness of and responsibility towards a range of stakeholders, the relative importance of whom varies from one firm to another. This implies that most SMEs describe CSR on the lines of the stakeholder theory. Jenkins (2004) reveals that SMEs are consistent in their identification of stakeholders and point towards the environmental management, employees, the community/society, and the supply chain. It is not at all surprising that SMEs focus their initiatives on the loc al community. SME owner/managers usually live in the same area in which the firm operates (CSR Europe, 2003). SMEs, in fact, rely much more that large firms on the prosperity of the community in which they operate as most of their customers and employees come from the surrounding area. Castka et al (2004) confirms that SMEs and large firms are not only different in nature but also in the way in which they approach CSR. They found that small businesses approach CSR informally and do not usually have pre-determined objectives or formal procedures for measuring the performance of objectives to external stakeholders. Further, large firms are more likely to adopt formal instruments to design CSR initiatives such as codes of conduct, ISO certification and social reporting (Graafland et al (2003). Large firms tend to integrate CSR as part of their business operations whilst SMEs consider CSR as an add on activity (Jenkins, 2004) and conduct CSR on an ad-hoc basis usually unrelated to their business strategy. Jenkins (2004) argues that the motivation for CSR engagement differs between large and small firms. Jenkins (2006) explains that the growing visibility and the increased impact of large firms globally have called for greater accountability and transparency. On the other hand, small firms remain largely invisible and are not driven by external pressures, but rather by an internal drive to do the right thing or putting something back or showing entrepreneurial spirit (Jenkins, 2004). The force which drives SMEs to engage in CSR activities is therefore more ethical rather than commercial. Gupta et al (2012) conducted a study of Indian SMEs in which they highlight the many benefits which accrue to SMEs engaging in CSR initiatives. Small and medium-sized firms actively engaging in CSR were reported to enjoy an endless list of advantages amongst which were improved image, reputation, trust and understanding. Firms also secured a better market position and improved financial performance; in creased attractiveness to potential recruits, increased employee motivation, cost savings and increased efficiency, efficient risk management systems and more business overall. CSR can be the stimulus for increased motivation and productivity amongst a firms workforce (Salquin et al, 2007; Berger-Douce, 2008). An awareness and understanding of the challenges posed by CSR can actually form an excellent basis for organisational differentiation and competitive advantage (Kechiche et al, 2012). Not all academics concord and Jenkins (2006) asserts that SMEs undertake CSR simply for its own sake and refrain from using it as a method of self promotion as the large firms do. According to Fassin (2008), CSR is a rather informal action, and therefore more intuitive rather than strategic and for this reason, SMEs will hardly enjoy all the benefits that CSR engagement implies. Jenkins (2004) emphasises that owner/managers of small firms are mainly preoccupied with the economic viability of their firms and spend a large part of their time and energy focusing on this aspect of their business. One main feature of SMEs is that the owner/manager is the person who deals with the day-to-day operations of the firm as well as other projects. This is distinct from large firms, where there is a dedicated CSR department with resources being specialised for this function. For this reason, time and resources are identified as the greatest constraints which SMEs face with respect to investing in CSR initiatives. Gupta et al (2012) also claim that the initial cost of CSR is at times higher for SMEs as they conduct small business and they justified request for government assistance and support in the implementation of CSR in the firm. The owner/managers of the UK firms studies by Jenkins revealed that they difficulties trying to convince reluctant employees to involve them selves in CSR activities. Furthermore, the excessive number of short term projects, the lack of information (Berger-Douce, 2008), the problems with measuring intangible benefits and the difficulties of making connections in a small community where other common adversities faced by SMEs. SMEs also meet difficulties which are related to the market, particularly restrictions in applying environmental and/or societal legislation because of its complexity and the rigidity of procedures. SMEs complain of the lack of adequate support services and infrastructure (Kechiche et al, 2012). Despite the adversities faced, Castka et al (2004) reveal that SMEs acknowledge that there is a need for them to conduct business in a socially responsible manner. When researching Swedish SMEs, Pettersson et al (2012) found that CSR activities become more important for some stakeholders, particularly in times of difficulties and revealed an increased need for CSR engagement. They report that SMEs can strategically use CSR activities in order to develop a competitive advantage through differentiation by creating societal advantage. They claim that CSR activities become more important for some stakeholders, particularly in times of difficulties. Jenkins (2004) posits that SMEs are often active members in their community. In support of this Perrini (2006) reports that 50% of European SMEs are engaged in socially responsible activities. He explains how there is a positive correlation between the degree of involvement and the size of the enterprise with 48% of very small firms, 65% of sm all and 70% of medium sized firms being engaged in CSR activities. A study of Danish SMEs carried out in 2005 (Danish National Labour Market Authority) identified seven areas of CSR deployment, namely, the workforce, the environment, stakeholder engagement, marketplace activities, supply chain activities, internal management activities and charitable and voluntary activities. The study revealed that work-force related CSR activities were most diffused with 54% of all CSR activities, environmental activities occupied 51% of all initiatives and supply chain activities only occupy 22% of all initiatives. On the other hand, the barometer of sustainable development within French SMEs (CROCIS, 2007) reports that 96% of firms in the Paris area had implemented sustainable development measures while 47% of these firms had good links with the community through sponsorship deals, charitable events, back-to-work/employability schemes etc. Other academics, (Saulquin et al, 2005; Berger-Douce, 20 08) are in support of this picture and confirm that employees appear to be well treated in the majority of SMEs. Fox (2005) reports that the most likely reason for SMEs to engage in environmental management is when this becomes critical in attracting and retaining business either locally or internationally. Saulquin et al (2010) affirm this by reporting that there is great sensitivity by SMEs to the wellbeing of their employees and their community links. In support of this, other authors claim that large companies influence the behaviour of small firms in their supply chain in particular in relation to environmental protection, labour and human rights, health and safety (Jorgensen and Knudsen, 2005). Worthington et al (2006) tells us that UK SMEs invested in a range of CSR activities and the most common forms of CSR deployment ranged from donating to local causes and charities, sponsorships of local events and organisations, support for local schools and colleges, environmental init iatives, ethical purchasing and staff related activities. 2.6. Capability Maturity Model Fassin (2008), contends that most SMEs regard CSR as rather informal action and refers to it as an intuitive initiative rather than strategic process. On the other hand, Spence et al (2011) affirm that MNC are often seen to assume responsibility by implementing CSR-related organisational practices and structures which permit them to interact directly with civil society. Further, however, MNCs are often accused of using CSR as a front to cover up the more real business practices. Indeed it is important to analyse the depth and effectiveness with which organisations embed CSR within their operations so as to distinguish between CSR talk and CSR practice (Spence et al, 2011). The Capability Maturity Model is an organisational model which describes five evolutionary stages in which a firm manages its processes. An organisation which treats CSR as an ad hoc activity will be at the initial stage. As the firm matures in its approach to CSR and embraces CSR more and more as part of its core business practice it starts to progress through the next four levels, namely: managed, defined, qualitatively managed, optimizing. The maturity levels offer a structure to the discipline needed for continuous improvement. This paradigm is useful to determine the reason behind different levels of organisational CSR commitment and what it takes for a firm to progress to the next level of commitment. Level 1 INITIAL Level 2 MANAGED Level 3 DEFINED Level 4 QUANTITATIVELY MANAGED Level 5 OPTIMIZING Process unpredictable, Poorly controlled and reactive Processes characterised for projects, and is often reactive Processes characterised for the Organisation and is proactive Process measured, and controlled Focus on process improvement Figure 5: The Capability Maturity Model Humphrey, 1989

A Confederacy of Dunces :: essays research papers

Journal One: A Confederacy of Dunces Chapter One: Plot: Ignatius waited for Mrs. Reilly outside the department store. A policeman attempted to apprehend Ignatius; a mob ensued with the result of an old man being arrested for calling the policeman a communist. Mrs. Reilly and Ignatius escape to a local bar in which the bartender treats them with a lack of respect as well as eavesdrops on their conversation about Ignatius’ trip to Baton Rouge. The old man, Claude Robichaux, was brought before the police sergeant as well as the officer who brought him in. A black man named Jones made comments during the man’s â€Å"interrogation† and was repeatedly told to shut up by name, giving the idea that this wasn’t the first time Jones had been there. Returning to the Night of Joy bar, Ignatius’ mother sells her hat to a young gentleman for fifteen dollars while Ignatius tells his bus story to a regular customer by the name of Darlene. Mrs. Reilly has a little too much to drink and begins to weave a tale of domestic mistreatment by her boy and Darlene loses interest in Ignatius. Ms. Lee, the bar’s patron returns from a few hours of shopping and kicks the Reillys out of the bar. When Mrs. Reilly tries to drive away from the city, she demolishes a Voltzwagon parked behind the massive ’46 Plymouth and crumbles a balcony of a building she hits. The officer from Ignatius’ previous incident ends the chapter with his arrival in a most awkward costume, punishment for his earlier dealings. Character: Ignatius is a highly intelligent, socially awkward, and interesting character. Plump and at least a little bit apprehensive towards the world in general, he wears an odd assortment of clothing and pines for his lost lumber jacket. He is 30, unemployed and lives with his mother. He spent eight years of college getting a masters degree in an as of yet undisclosed discipline, possibly having to do with medieval history based upon his one known job interview with the head of Medieval Studies in Baton Rouge. Mrs. Reilly is Ignatius’ mother. She has arthritis of the elbow and shows a genuine interest in the well being of her child while on the same time feels a slight feeling of resentment of his overpowering each and every conversation as well as the trouble he finds himself in. Claude Robichaux was the old man who tried to defend Ignatius by calling the policeman a communist.

Confused Values in The Necklace Essay -- Mauassant The Necklace Essays

Confused Values in The Necklace To some people, class distinction is very important. Usually we think of class distinction as being of most importance to the higher classes, those who can afford to look down on the rest of the world, but sometimes this concept is of most importance to those who occupy the lower steps of society. These are the people who are stuck where they are, but feel that their true places are at the top of the social ladder. The character of Mme. Loisel in Guy de Moupassant's story "The Necklace" is one such person. She is of the lower classes, but she holds a romantic idea of what life at the top consists of, and it is one of these ideas that eventually gets her into trouble. The story starts out by describing Mme. Loisel and the contrasts between the world she lives in and the one she dreams of. Her life consists of simple clothes, a plain household full of functional things, and simple, healthy food. She has one servant in her house, her husband holds a good, if unglamourous, job, and they are in general a middle class family. This life is...

Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman Essay -- essays research papers

In Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman, [the protagonist] Willy Loman’s inability to live in and cope with the present ultimately destroys him. The are several constant themes and ideas throughout the play which show this. Willy’s inability to be successful according to his own standards is most problematical for him. The troublesome relationship between Willy and his family also leads to a great deal of stress. And the constants flashbacks and disillusions Willy goes through to deal with these problems bring him further from reality and destroy him. The fact that Willy cannot be successful is perhaps his biggest problem. In escaping this reality he ultimately destroys himself. Willy says, â€Å"I did 500 gross in Providence and 700 gross in Boston.† â€Å"No! Wait a minute...that makes your commission $212!,† replies Linda â€Å"Well I didn’t figure it yet but...well I did about a hundred and eighty gross in Providence,† answers Willy (11). To cover up for his lack of success at work, Willy lies about how he does. He tries to make himself seem successful when in reality he needs to find a solution to his problems. He tries to bargain with his boss to get a steady paying job because he cannot live on the commission he is making. â€Å"If I could take home - well $65 a week, I could swing it...All I need is $50 a week...If I had $40 a week - that’s all I need,† Willy begs his boss (24). His lack of success causes him to keep bargaining and will lead him to settle at just about anything. However the attempt to get a regular paying job turns out nothing short of failure. Failures such as this lead to Willy’s being fired. â€Å"I don’t want you to represent us, I’ve been meaning to tell you for a long time now,† says Howard (26). This obviously destroys his work life. These mounting problems of being unsuccessful at work build up leading to him ultimately being fired. There are several ways in which Willy avoids his problems. First, rather then deal with such situations Willy is stubborn and assumes things will take care of themselves. He uses this attitude when his long time friend Charley offers him a job. Charley says, â€Å"I offered you a job. You can make $50 a week, and I won’t send you on the road.† â€Å"I’ve got a job,†(30). Willy’s stubbornness won’t let him deal with reality, causing him to turn down an offer to fix a major problem. He denies his problems rather then taking t... ...ot, and get right down the field under the ball...because it is important son...(To Ben), Ben, Where do I?...How do I?† (38). This is Willy as he leaves his home for the final time. He has a final hallucination with Ben and Biff. Then he realizes he is alone, but it is too late. The reality is finally realized yet Willy cannot handle it because he has avoided handling it for so long. The pile of unsolved problems is too much and Willy is destroyed. There are many troubling issues Willy faces throughout the play. His lack of success and work and his troubled family relationships hurt him. They destroy him literally. Rather then dealing with these issues he escapes into disillusionment, which proves costly to him. The constant flashbacks to his glory days and his dreams of being successful lead to his inability to settle his present problems. By the time that reality kicks in, it is too late for Willy to deal with it and instead he takes his life because his life is too far g one to fix. And even if it is possible, years of living back and forth in and out of reality have made him unable to know how to fix his life. The inability to accept the present has destroyed Willy Loman.

Disciplinary Action

Some issues regarding the company’s disciplinary actions towards the employees’ misbehavior has arisen. Usually it is about ethical and legal issues. Some company’s may be too harsh about the decisions and actions towards employee. There are some situations that needed to study well before making actions towards the employee. One of the situations that needed a disciplinary action is when an employee has been consistently missing on staff meetings and an oral warning has already been issued by him. May be the company can give the employee a written warning and give him/her a copy of the documents that will prove his absences on meetings.After the employee received the letter and still did not attend any meetings, the employee should be demoted. Attending staff meetings is part of the job. Not attending the meetings means not doing his work as an employee. Another situation when an employee has a 30% error rate in data entry for a high tech company. The employee s hould know that he/she is working in a high tech company and a 30% error rate in data entry is big enough for the company to have some problems. If the problem is on data entry on sales, a problem might occur on accounting. First, the company should give the employee a written and oral warning.Let the employee be aware of his/her mistakes and then observe if the employee still commits mistakes on the data entry. If after the warning, the error rate still has no improvement, meaning the error rate is not lessen, may be the employee can be transferred to another division. The work may not suit for him. Also, make an investigation if there is a conspiracy behind the error on data entry, the error might be done intentionally. If the employee has been proven to have done the data entry error intentionally and it really affects the company, the company can fire him/her for work.The employee should do his/her work correctly, mistakes may happen but if the mistakes is so high and is being d one continuously, there is a problem with the employee. Additional situation is when an employee is absent from work, on a yearly average, 15% of the time. For this situation, if the absences are still allowed by the company’s policy then there is not much can be done on this situation than to ask the employee to lessen his/her absences and explain to him/her the advantages that he/she and the company will gain if he/she have more time to job. If the absences are not allowed by the company, an oral and written warning can be given.If this kind of behavior continues after the warning, the employee can be demoted for not attending his/her duty well. If an employee has been arrested for drunk driving during off duty, there is not much to say about this because the employee is not working during the incident and whatever the employee does outside working hours is not the company’s business. What the employee has done is a private matter. The most allowable disciplinary act ion that can be made is by talking to the employee; tell that the company has heard the incident during his off duty.The company may also remind the employee in a nice tone and manner that what he/she has done might have an effect on the company and ask him to be careful next time and avoid driving while drunk. Approach the employee as in a way that the company is caring for he employee. That way the employee might not be offended for the company’s action towards the incident because he/she might feel that the company is just caring for his/her safety. The company should study each employee’s misconducts before giving them some disciplinary actions. Let the employee know their mistakes first and then observe if there are changes on their behaviors.

Importance Of Public Open Space Health And Social Care Essay

One of the chief purposes of any public authorization is to better the quality of life. â€Å" Parks and public unfastened infinites have played an critical function to better occupants ‘ life in development of metropolis † ( Nankervis, 1998 ) . The history of public infinites could be found all over the centuries – in the medieval epoch, the communal graze infinite and metropolis square besides known as the ‘common ‘ was a important urban component. Industrial revolution might follow back the tradition of supplying for POS ( public unfastened infinites ) was recognised as a critical facet in the metropolis development ( Churchus, C. et al 2004 ) . For the bulk of 19th and early twentieth centuries, the proviso of POS within urban countries were considered as indispensable to the resident wellness of interior metropolis, where normally crowded conditions, pollution and deficiency of sanitation were an issue. Recent research defined at the beginning of the new millenary shows that â€Å" more than 60 % of the universe ‘s population lives in metropoliss. By 2025 will be over 5 billion people who live in urban contexts and in 135 metropolitan countries, the figure of occupants will transcend 4 million † ( Musco, 2006 ) . Those facets is going job ; the addition in population, deficiency of public services, growing of metropoliss by scattering of colonies and pollution in the rapid urbanisation. Therefore, abodes require more safety and to be more environmentally friendly constructed. Nowadays, POS provide leisure, diversion and advance public wellness ( Banjeree, 2001 ) every bit good as doing countries more attractive and more pleasing topographic points. Harmonizing to World Health Organization of workshop study which is â€Å" The hereafter for our kids † , Physical activities absence cause by the deficiency of unfastened infinites for diversion lead to psychological jobs, fleshiness, accidents and hurts were considered as precedences. Other facets is that kids have more clip for telecasting, computing machine games and an addition in the development lead to utilize of ‘commercial resort areas ‘ ( McKendrick et al. 2000 ) . Furthermore, the other research has identified these startling facts: 20 % of four-year-olds are fleshy and 15 % of 15-year-olds are corpulent. Evidence shows that this addition in fleshiness is linked to more sedentary life styles and a lessening in out-of-door activity. It could anticipate the grownup forms of exercising are set early in life ( Kuh, Cooper 1992 ) . Therefore, exercising deficit when immature can engender jobs in maturity, i.e. diabetes and bosom disease. It besides appears that there is a job with contaminated topographic points or ruins alternatively of unfastened infinites. Milieus without green infinite nexus to short of community sense and facet increased behavior of force compared with those that included green infinite ( Jackson, Kochtitzky 2001 ) . In add-on, the unsafe topographic point attracts vermin and can harbor condemnable activities ( Lord 1995 ) For illustration, the largest effluent sludge works and medical waste incinerator in the Northeast of New York City, where has a childhood asthma 1000 % higher than other metropolis in New York State. Children might take to play on the streets instead than in refuse and used acerate leafs of the vacant ( Maantay 2001 ) . This survey shows that land-use forms besides significantly affect the wellness of urban communities and deficiency of safe topographic points limits kid ‘s activities. In the recent survey examined different socio-economic position ( SES ) of kids play in unfastened infinite. The 94 % of parents concern sing their kid ‘s safety was the most often presented factor act uponing where kids played. Parental-safety concerns about the their kids playing were chiefly influenced by aliens, congregate teenagers/gangs unwanted behaviors such as intimidation, holding intoxicant and route traffic ( Valentine and McKendrick, 1997 ) . These concerns were peculiarly apparent among more than one-third of parents from low and mid SES countries, compared to merely 10 % of parents from high SES countries. In add-on, more than 80 % of households lived on a chief or through street, half of the parents allowed their kids to play on the street where expose autos. Therefore, the kids seem to pass more clip at place, friends ‘ houses even in the shrub, river, route and street. These safety concerns limit topographic points chances for kids ‘s drama. Though about all recognise that job exists, the best possible response has non been easy to make. Supporting green unfastened infinite and sustainable design can convey down disease, mental jobs furthermore C footmarks through ecological park, green substructure and care of allocations. It could hold long-run positive effects on public wellness, economic value of public infinite and cut downing offense, which three principal points can be justified with some groundss in following phase. London is still among the greenest capital metropoliss in the universe ( visitlondon.com/areas/parks/ ) . Londoner can bask the great out-of-doorss more than other states, besides Nottingham is good illustration because non merely there are a figure of Parkss for people, but besides people easy to entree high-quality of green infinites which make a healthier community. There is a turning concern about the wellness of the state which related peculiarly our public wellness. From the position of planning and edifice topographic points that influence people ‘s wellness, â€Å" an across-the-board attack to public wellness which respects the bar of disease and the publicity of physical and mental wellbeing † ( Honari and Boleyn 1999, Pacione, 2003 ) . The figure 1 gives more information about fleshiness already costs more in public wellness footings, and why of import the appraisal of green infinite for public wellness.i4.2 billionAnnual cost to the NHS of fleshiness and rela ted diseases50 per centDecrease in hazard of bosom onslaught by a day-to-day walk in the park91 per centPeoples who believe that public Parkss and unfastened infinites improve quality of life300 per centIncreased likeliness of occupants being physically active in residential countries with high degrees of verdure Figure 1. Greenspace Scotland 2009: Health impact appraisal of greenspace: a guide.www.cabeurl.com/30 Scots Natural Heritage and Institute of Occupational Medicine, published by greenspace Scotland First, safe and clean country encourages people to walk more and hence meet considerable wellness benefits. Surgeon General prescribed lively walking or cycling every bit small as 30 proceedingss a twenty-four hours in the park to better wellness. It has been reported to cut down bosom onslaught hazard by 50 % , ( Hakim 1999 ) diabetes by 50 % , ( The Diabetes Prevention Research Group 2002 ) colon malignant neoplastic disease by 30 % ( Slattery, Potter and Caan et al 1997 ) . Furthermore, it is estimated that â€Å" if merely one in 100 inactive people took equal exercising it could salvage the NHS in Scotland every bit much as ?85 million per twelvemonth. † ( Bird 2003 ) . Second, there is increasing grounds that ‘nature ‘ in the urban environment is benefits for both physical and mental wellness. Natural elements such as trees and lakes promote a bead in blood force per unit area and cut down emphasis feelings ( Hartig, Evans, et. Al. 2003 ) . Increasing entree to high-quality POS can bring forth significant benefits of public wellness and salvage health care costs such as fall ining a gym or traveling swimming ( Pretty, Griffin, Sellens and Pretty, 2003 ) . Therefore, being activities in outside promote physical and mental wellbeing, cut down emphasis, overcome isolation, societal coherence and relieve physical jobs. In other words, future wellness can be defined how carefully design makes healthy topographic points through public green infinites. Bing urbanization has led to kids with short of chances to play out of house and see the natural environment than old coevalss. Under the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, kids have the right to play, diversion and civilization ( Petrie, Egharevba, Oliver and Poland, 2000 ) . Play breeds of import phenomenon for development of kids ; the growing of societal accomplishments, experimentation about the crises of confrontation and the publicity of physical activity. Baranowski T. et Al besides defined â€Å" natural unfastened infinite for kids, that being out-of-doorss is the most powerful correlative of physical activity, and contact with nature can significantly cut down the psychological hurt caused by emphasis † . First, activity in public, green infinites bring benefit to kids enduring from Attention Deficit Disorder ( ADD ) . Evidence shows that green infinite activities such as fishing, association football were 85 % regarded the behavior of kids with ADD, while no n-green activities such as video games, watching telecasting were merely 43 % improved as good ( Taylor 2001 ) . Second, topographic points with trees and grass encourage better chances for kids ‘s playing than infinites without such eclogical elements. For illustration, in inner-city Chicago, kids ‘s playing was monitored in environing flat blocks where were likewise planned trees and grass. Playing in the green infinites found significantly higher degrees of originative than in the waste countries. Children playing in the green infinites had more chance for mental growing, this facet can better the interpersonal accomplishments development ( Taylor 2001 ) . In add-on, well-designed infinites will supply to make full fewer chances than old coevalss through supplying kids with chances for exercising and propensity. The crime-ridden territory can alter to attractive, safe topographic points and better topographic point value by public unfastened infinite. First, community gardens were shown important decrease in offense rate. A positive illustration emerges from Southern Ontario, Canada, a community garden was attempted on the old rubbish shit site, which attracted local felons and was avoided by the 1200 local occupants as a consequence drastic 30 % bead in offense through environmental design. Furthermore, this decrease has encouraged occupants to utilize the streets more at dark, including better communicating with different cultural groups ( McKay 1998 ) . Such alterations can advance everyone to run into the greatest of public infinites. Indeed, good-quality public infinites link to good direction to forestall from slumism. Second, turn uping propinquity to public infinite b economic value and trading by taking more people for retail merchants. It has been shown that well-planned public inf inites betterments in town Centres could bring forth commercial trading by up to 40 % and the growing of private sector investing ( DoE and The Association of Town Centre Management, Managing Urban Spaces in Town Centres 1997 ) . â€Å" Small concerns taking a new concern location rank the sum of unfastened infinite and propinquity to Parkss and diversion as the number-one precedence in site choice. † ( The Trust for Public Land, Economic Benefits of Open Space, 2001 ) Third, The local economic system can accomplish important positive impact from a high-quality public landscape in footings of exciting addition in value of house, since prorerty-buyers prefer to be near green infinite. For illustration, in Berlin by 2000, near to resort areas in residential countries and a high figure of street trees was found to increase 16 % in the values of belongings. ( Luther, Gruehn 2001 ) . In Leiden, Netherlands, a position of a park have been shown to raise the house monetary values by 8 % to compare with a position of an flat block, which can cut down the monetary value by 7 % . The value of places was at least 15 % higher by the presence of green infinites, where the bulk of occupants mentioned the public green infinites as a major factor in their moving determination into the country. ( Luttik 2000 ) When the environment is unattractive, Unsafe, i.e. ‘unwalkable ‘ urban countries, can do it difficult to accomplish the demands of physical activity and interaction between occupants and nature country by the deficiency of verdure and dominated traffic. It will supply unproductive life manner. Inclusive high-quality, well-maintained public infinites that encourage walking, cycling and assorted activities have a positive consequence on our wellness. In other words, POS is a powerful arm in the battle against fleshiness and unwellness. Responsibility explained the interrelatedness between wellness, wellbeing and sustainability and urban design betterments undertaken as portion of a wider scheme can engender even more dramatic consequences ; switching forms of illness, population, public wellness, besides conveying down C footmarks. Probably, carefully design can cover with complex demands in simple ways. However, above all, integrated decision-making should be preceded by p olicymakers, besides they should concern bing communities and renovations. This research has deal with sustainable, promotive wellness environments together with the refering wellness and wellbeing. This win-win scheme in sustainability benefits accrue from every planning procedure through more collaborative working. Open infinite will go firmly portion of regulation and community development. Approach to public unfastened infinite maximises its possible to lend to a more inclusive and sustainable 1 on a local, regional and national degree that will heighten a broad scope of ends.

Managing Multicultural Teams

Key Issues Cultural differences affect teamwork and the damage often precedes intervention. Proper knowledge is needed in managing these differences, or more damage occurs. Communication plays an integral part in cultural differences. Direct communication can be perceived by some as clear communication, but for others it may be embarrassing. Indirect communication, in turn, can result in miscommunication. Accent and fluency differences can be barriers to effective teamwork, unless team members choose and put effort in learning and using the preferred language of the team. Authority and hierarchy are also regarded highly by some cultures, while others do not. This may become offensive for cultures who regard the chain of command as important. Decision-making style is another factor. Some cultures decide fast, while others drag on. There are four strategies that can be used for managing multicultural differences in the workplace: adaptation, structural intervention, managerial intervention, and exit. Adaptation works when team members are open about the differences and chooses to work around them. Structural intervention is used when team members are resistant to acknowledging and working around their differences. In many cases, this may require sub-grouping. Managerial intervention may be necessary when the managers are needed to be involved so that one culture’s management may resolve the conflict with the other culture’s management, avoiding embarrassment and conflict on not following hierarchies. Exit is a last option, and it may be voluntary or management-requested. It does not help with the difference, but it allows the team to move again with new people. There is no one fool-proof strategy; its use is dependent on the case in hand. When the management discusses multicultural differences with team members beforehand, the team will be able to pull through the job with less problems. When team members are open about the differences and works with them, involvement of the higher management becomes unnecessary and the project becomes easier. Analysis Multicultural teams are essential for many companies, especially those engaging in international deals, but it is an investment that needs careful understanding and management. There are many issues that may arise within teams composed of people from differing beliefs and practices, and communication is only one of these issues. Perceptions on different corporate items such as hierarchy and decision making equally affects the performance of a team and its members. Oftentimes, managers will have to take a stand and face the problem. There are four strategies in which the issue of multicultural team conflicts may be resolved, and the most appropriate strategy depends on the difference that needs to be addressed. Also, the strategy to be used is dependent on how well the team members are willing to participate in solving the problem within the team. In hindsight, problems can be pre-empted by managers when the issue of multicultural difference is discussed beforehand, before the team starts working together. This way, the members will have a foreknowledge of why their members from the other culture is working the way they do. Members should also be cooperative, willing to cope with and understand the differences. This can be solicited by he manager, but it should also be automatic among the team. When culturally-different team members are cooperative and understanding, it is possible for them to co-exist and work their way to the accomplishment of their given tasks.

Notes on Sociology

Choosing a research method Webb, R. , Westergaard, H. , Trobe, K. , Steel, L. , (2008) AS Level Sociology, Brentwood: Napier Press p. 162 Sociologists use a range of different research methods and sources of data to collect information and test their theories. In this Topic, we shall identify the main methods and sources used in Sociology. We shall also look at the different types of data that these methods produce. We shall also examine the factors that influence sociologists’ choice of what topic they research, and at some of the main practical, theoretical and ethical (moral) factors that affect their choice of which methods to employ.Types of data P. 163 Sociologists use a wide variety of different methods and sources to obtain data (information or evidence) about society. To make sense of this variety, we can classify them into: †¢ Primary and secondary sources of data. †¢ Quantitative and qualitative data. Primary and secondary sources of data Primary data is i nformation collected by sociologists themselves for their own purposes. These purposes may be to obtain a first – hand ‘picture’ of a group or society, or to test a hypothesis (an untested theory).Methods for gathering primary data include: †¢ Social surveys: these involve asking people questions in a written questionnaire or an interview. †¢ Participant observation: the sociologist joins in with the activities of the group he or she is studying. †¢ Experiments: sociologists rarely use laboratory experiments, but they sometimes use field experiments and the comparative method. A big advantage of using primary data is that sociologists may be able to gather precisely the information they need to test their hypotheses.However, doing so can often be costly and time consuming. Secondary data is information that has been collected by someone else for their own purposes, but which the sociologist can then use. Sources of secondary data include: †¢ O fficial statistics produced by government on a wide range of issues, such as crime, divorce, health and unemployment, as well as other statistics produced by charities, businesses, churches and other organisations. †¢ Documents such as letters, diaries, photographs, official (government) reports, novels, newspapers and television broadcasts.Using secondary data can be a quick and cheap way of doing research, since someone else has already produced the information. However, those who produce it may not be interested in the same questions as sociologists, and so secondary sources may not provide exactly the information that sociologists need. Quantitative and qualitative data Quantitative data refers to information in a numerical form. Examples of quantitative data include official statistics on how many girls passed five or more GCSEs or on the percentage of marriages ending in divorce.Similarly, information collected by opinion polls and market research surveys often comes in t he form of quantitative data – for example, on the proportion of the electorate intending to vote for a particular party or how many people take holidays abroad. Qualitative data, by contrast gives a ‘feel’ for what something is like – for example, what it feels like to get good GCSE results, or for one’s marriage to end in divorce. Evidence gathered by using participant observation aims to give us a sense of what it feels like to be in that person’s ‘shoes.These methods can provide rich descriptions of these people’s feelings and experiences. Factors influencing choice of method P. 164 Given the wide range of methods available, how do we select the right one for our research? Different methods and sources of data have different strengths and limitations and we need to be able to evaluate these when selecting which to use. We can look at these strengths and limitations in terms of a number of practical, ethical (moral) and theore tical issues. Practical issues Different methods present different practical problems. These include: Time and moneyDifferent methods require different amounts of time and money and this may influence the sociologists’ choice. For example, large – scale surveys may employ dozens of interviewers and data – inputting staff and cost a great deal of money. By contrast, a small – scale project involving a lone researcher using participant observation may be cheaper to carry out, but it can take several years to complete. The researcher’s access to resources can be a major factor in determining which methods they employ. A well – known professor will probably have access to more research funds than a young student, for example.Requirements of funding bodies Research institutes, businesses and other organisations that provide the funding for research may require the results to be in a particular form. For example, a government department funding re search into educational achievement may have targets for pass rates and so require quantitative data to see whether these targets are being achieved. This means the sociologist will have to use a method capable of producing such data, such as questionnaires or structured interviews. Personal skills and characteristicsEach sociologist possesses different personal skills, and this may affect their ability to use different methods. For example, participant observation usually requires the ability to mix easily with others as well as good powers of observation and recall, while in – depth interviews call for an ability to establish a rapport (relationship of empathy and trust) with the interviewee. Not all sociologists have these qualities and so some may have difficulty using these methods. Subject matter It may be much harder to study a particular group or subject by one method than by another.For example, it might prove difficult for a male sociologist to study an all – female group by means of participant observation, while written questionnaires may be useless for studying those who cannot read. Research opportunity Sometimes the opportunity to carry out research occurs unexpectedly and this means that it may not be possible to use unstructured methods such as questionnaires, which take longer to prepare. For example, a Glasgow gang leader offered ‘James Patrick’ (1973) the chance ‘out of the blue’ to spend time with his gang.With little time to prepare, ‘Patrick’ had no option but to use participant observation. In other circumstances, the researcher may have been able to set up the research opportunity carefully beforehand and have plenty of time to select their methods. P. 165†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Ethical issues Ethics refers to moral issues of right and wrong. Methods that sociologists use to study people may raise a range of ethical questions. The British Sociological Association s ets out guidelines for the conduct of research, including the following principles: Informed consentResearch participants (the people being studied) should be offered the right to refuse. The researcher should also tell them about all relevant aspects of the research so that they can make a fully informed decision. Consent should be obtained before research begins, and if the study is lengthy, again at intervals throughout the process. Confidentiality and privacy Researchers should keep the identity of research participants secret in order to help to prevent possible negative effects on them. Researchers should also respect the privacy of research participants.Personal information concerning research participants should be kept confidential. Effects on research participants Researchers need to be aware of the possible effects of their work on those they study. These could include police intervention, harm to employment prospects, social exclusion and psychological damage. Wherever p ossible, researchers should try to anticipate and prevent such harmful effects. Vulnerable groups Special care should be taken where research participants are particularly vulnerable because of their age, disability, or physical or mental health.For example, when studying children in schools, researchers should have regard for issues of child protection. They should obtain the consent of both the child and the parent, and they should provide information in language that the child can understand. Covert research Covert research is when the researcher’s identity and research purpose are hidden from the people being studied. This can create serious ethical problems, such as deceiving or lying to people in order to win their trust or obtain information. Clearly, it is impossible to gain informed consent while at the same time keeping the research or its purpose secret.However, some sociologists argue that the use of covert methods may be justified in certain circumstances. These may include gaining access to areas of social life closed to investigation by secretive, deviant or powerful groups. Theoretical issues This refers to questions about what we think society is like and whether we can obtain an accurate, truthful picture of it. Our views on these issues will affect the kinds of methods we favour using. Validity A valid method is one that produces a true or genuine picture of what something is really like.It allows the researcher to get closer to the truth. Many sociologists argue that qualitative methods such as participant observation give us a more valid or truthful account of what it is like to be a member of a group than quantitative methods such as questionnaires can. This is because participant observation can give us a deeper insight through first hand experience. Reliability Another word for reliability is replicability. A replica is an exact copy of something, so a reliable method is one which, when repeated by another researcher, gives the s ame results.For example, in Physics or Chemistry, different researchers can repeat the same experiment and obtain the same results every time. In Sociology, quantitative methods such as written questionnaires tend to produce more reliable results than qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews. p. 166 Representativeness Representativeness refers to whether or not the people we study are a typical cross – section of the group we are interested in. Imagine, for example, that we want to know about the effects of divorce on children.It would take a great deal of time and money to study every child of divorced parents, and we might only be able to afford to study a sample of, say, 100 such children. However, if we ensure that our sample is representative or typical of the wider population, we can then use our findings to make generalisations about all children of divorced parents, without actually having to study all of them. Large – scale quantitative surveys that use sophisticated sampling techniques to select their sample are more likely to produce representative data.Methodological perspective Sociologists’ choice of method is also influenced by their methodological perspective – their view of what society is like and how we should study it. There are two contrasting perspectives on the choice of methods: positivism and interpretivism. Positivists – prefer quantitative data, seek to discover patterns of behaviour, see Sociology as a science. Interpretivists – prefer qualitative data, seek to understand social actors’ meanings, reject the view that Sociology is a science.Why do positivists and Interpretivists prefer different types of data? Positivists and Interpretivists collect and use different types of data: positivists prefer quantitative data, while Interpretivists prefer qualitative. This is because they make different assumptions about the nature of society and how we should study it. Positivists: †¢ Assume that society has an objective factual reality – it exists ‘out there’, just like the physical world. †¢ Society exerts an influence over its members, systematically shaping their behaviour patterns. Positivist research uses quantitative data to uncover and measure these patterns of behaviour. †¢ By analysing quantitative data, positivists seek to discover the objective scientific laws of cause and effect that determine behaviour. †¢ Positivists thus prefer questionnaires, structured interviews, experiments and official statistics. These produce data that is both reliable and representative. Interpretivists: †¢ Reject the idea of an objective social reality – we construct reality through the meanings we give to situations, not the product of external forces. Our actions are based on the meanings we give to situations, not the product of external forces. †¢ Interpretivist research uses qualitative data to uncover and describe the social actor’s ‘universe of meaning’. †¢ By interpreting qualitative data, Interpretivists seek to gain a subjective understanding of actors’ meanings and ‘life worlds’. †¢ Interpretivists thus prefer participant observation, unstructured interviews, and personal documents. These produce data that is valid. Functionalists and Marxists often take a positivist approach.They see society as a large – scale (macro – level) structure that shapes our behaviour. By contrast, interactionists favour an interpretivist approach. They take a micro – level view of society, focusing on small – scale, face – to face interactions. The sociologist’s theoretical perspective is usually the most important factor when choosing which method to use. Whenever possible, they will want to obtain the type of data – quantitative or qualitative – that their perspective views as most appropriate. However, practical and ethical factors usually limit the choice of method. Just because a sociologist prefers a particular kind of data, doesn’t mean that they can simply go ahead and gather it. Time, resources, access, consent, privacy and so on are all constraints on their choice. Finally, even sheer chance may determine the method used. For example, David Tuckett (2001) describes how one postgraduate Sociology student found himself taken ill with tuberculosis and confined to a hospital ward, so he used this as an opportunity to conduct a participant observation study.Choice of topic p. 167. Before choosing which method to use, sociologists need to decide what topic they wish to study. Several factors influence their choice: Theoretical perspective The sociologist’s theoretical perspective is a major influence upon their choice of research topic. For example, a New Right researcher may study the effects of welfare benefits on the growth of lone – parent famili es, since the idea of welfare dependency is central to their standpoint.By contrast, a feminist researcher is more likely to choose to study domestic violence, as opposition to gender oppression lies at the heart of Feminist theory. Society’s values Sociologists themselves are part of the society they study and thus are influenced by its values. As these values change, so does the focus of research. The rise of Feminism in the 1960s and 1970s led to a focus on gender inequality and the environmentalist concerns of the 21st century have generated interest in ‘green crimes’ such as serious pollution or the unlawful transport of nuclear material.Funding bodies Most research requires funding from an external body. These bodies include government agencies, charitable organisations and businesses. As the funding body is paying for the research, it will determine the topic to be investigated. For example, one of the major social concerns of New Labour governments after 1997 was the ‘social exclusion’ of some disadvantaged groups. As a result, government departments were keen to fund research projects to investigate the causes and effects of social exclusion. Practical factorsPractical factors, such as the inaccessibility of certain situations to the researcher, may also restrict what topic they are able to study. For example, although sociologists may wish to study the ways in which global corporations make their decisions, this may not be possible because these are made in secrecy. Summary Sociologists test their theories using quantitative or qualitative data. Sociologists obtain primary data themselves, using methods including questionnaires, interviews and observation. Secondary data are produced by others but used by sociologists.In choosing a method, sociologists take several issues into account: †¢ Practical issues include time and funding. †¢ Ethical issues include whether the researcher deceives the subjects. †¢ Theoretical issues include validity (does the method give a truthful picture? ), reliability (can it be replicated? ) and representativeness (does it study a typical cross – section? ). Perspective also affects choice of method. Positivists prefer quantitative data; interpretivists favour qualitative data. Choice of topic is also affected by society’s values and funding bodies.